Today marks 60 years since Kenya was declared a republic on 12th December 1964. Kenya, like many other African countries, found itself integrated into the global capitalist system after the shift from classical competitive (laissez-faire) capitalism to modern monopoly imperialism. This higher stage of capitalism, characterised by monopoly capital, was driven by the concentration and centralisation of capital. This necessitated the export of capital as a prerequisite for expanding production in the metropolitan capitalist countries.
In 1885, an imperialist conference convened in Berlin, Germany, by European imperialist powers—including Britain, France, Germany, Portugal, Italy, Spain, and the Netherlands—resulted in the redivision of Africa. This division facilitated the export of finance capital under the tutelage of foreign financial oligarchies. By 1895, the British government had established the East African Protectorate, with colonial rulers preparing for direct rule. In 1920, Kenya was officially declared a British colony, except for the coastal areas still under partial control of the Sultan of Zanzibar.
Our people were displaced from their ancestral lands by white settlers and confined to agriculturally unproductive “native reserves.” Many who had engaged in petty commodity production were forced out and compelled to sell their labour to white settlers as commodities. African labour was tightly controlled through a tax system requiring every Kenyan above the age of 16 to work in colonial fields. Additionally, the oppressive Kipande system—a metal pass worn around the neck—regulated Africans’ movements. Tax receipts and identification had to be carried everywhere.
The colonial regime subjected Kenyans to inhumane conditions, including forced and unpaid labour, confiscation of property, collective punishments, displacement, rape, and the murder of innocents. Christianity was weaponised to suppress indigenous cultures and beliefs, making our people docile under oppression while being promised a heavenly afterlife of milk, bread, and honey. Despite this, our people began forming anti-imperialist organisations to defeat colonial rulers.
Early political formations were largely ethnic-based. The Young Kikuyu Association (YKA), formed in 1920, evolved into the East African Association (EAA) under Harry Thuku. Other ethnic organisations, such as the Kavirondo Association, also emerged. Later, the Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) was established, led by Jomo Kenyatta. By the end of 1944, a broader political formation, the Kenya African Union (KAU), was created, with Kenyatta as its leader.
Within KAU, ideological divisions emerged. The liberal nationalist faction, led by Kenyatta, advocated for independence through constitutional and parliamentary means via the Kenya Legislative Council. In contrast, the radical faction, led by Bildad Kaggia and Fred Kubai, believed true independence could only be achieved through armed struggle, while parliamentary reforms would merely result in token concessions.
The militant radicals within KAU planned an underground guerrilla movement to advance a protracted people’s war. This effort birthed the Mau Mau movement, headquartered initially at Kiburi House on Kirinyaga Street in Nairobi, later relocating to Mathare during the state of emergency. Trade unions, such as the East African Trade Union led by Fred Kubai and Makhan Singh, played pivotal roles in supporting the Kenya Land and Freedom Army (KLFA), led by General Mathenge Wa Mirugi and later by Field Marshal Dedan Kimathi.
The people’s protracted armed struggle intensified in the 1950s. On 20th October 1952, the Mau Mau successfully assassinated Home Guard Chief Waruhiu. In response, Sir Evelyn Baring declared a state of emergency, and colonial forces, bolstered by WWII veterans, the Kenya African Rifles (KAR), and murderous squads like the Kenya Police Reserve (KPR), launched brutal offensives against Mau Mau guerrillas in the Nyandarua and Kirinyaga forests.
“Nothing has ever been achieved by appealing to the moral sense of the oppressor.”
The Kenyan people resisted imperialism with unrelenting force. The contradiction between British imperialism and the Kenyan people sharpened during the people’s protracted war, for war represents the highest form of contradiction. Only through people’s war could principled peace be achieved.
With its economy weakened by WWII and rising pressure from the emerging US hegemony, Britain could not sustain its colonial wars. Imperialism’s chain was broken at its weakest link. Though the Mau Mau lost many leaders, they emerged victorious. Kenya gained independence on 12th December 1963, and a year later became a republic, albeit within the imperialist Commonwealth.
Independence Betrayed
Upon assuming power, Jomo Kenyatta used the colonial state machinery to suppress the Mau Mau. The fruits of independence were enjoyed by a select few around him. While the 1963 independence advanced the struggle, granting limited democratic rights and freedoms, these gains were only accessible to the privileged elite.
It became clear that political independence alone could not guarantee economic independence or the development of a truly national project. The social question—class struggle—was swept under the carpet by nationalists who championed slogans like Harambee. However, class struggle, the true motive force of history, exposed the contradictions of neocolonial Kenya.
Foreign finance capital continued to dominate, with Kenya’s petty bourgeoisie acting as an executive committee for the neocolonial state. Unlike European independence movements that developed national bourgeoisies capable of transforming feudal relations and advancing productive forces, Kenya’s petty bourgeoisie was weak, subservient to foreign monopoly capital, and incapable of controlling the means of production. This comprador class served imperialism, managing the colonial state for competing foreign interests.
Advancing the National Democratic Revolution (NDR)
The limitations of independence necessitate advancing the National Democratic Revolution (NDR) to complete independence and pave the way for socialism. The NDR is not an end in itself but a transitional stage towards socialism and ultimately communism.
Following Kenyatta’s betrayal, socialist and progressive forces, led by Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, formed the Kenya People’s Union (KPU), declaring socialism as its ideological foundation. Figures such as Bildad Kaggia, Achieng Oneko, and others joined KPU to continue the struggle for full independence. After KPU’s ban in 1969, progressive forces went underground, with movements like the December Twelve Movement and Mwakenya continuing the socialist struggle. The CPM-K represents the continuation of these protracted efforts.
As we celebrate 60 years of independence, it is critical to acknowledge the indispensable role of political organisation. No achievement has ever been possible without disciplined organisation and a clear political programme for the Kenyan people. Armed with Marxism-Leninism, CPM-K must fulfil its historical task of conducting social investigations, identifying revolutionary classes, and organising the motive forces of the revolution.
Coalitions and Alliances for the NDR
Advancing the National Democratic Revolution (NDR) is not merely a theoretical aspiration; it is a living, practical undertaking. The Communist Party Marxist Kenya (CPM-K) is already engaged at three crucial levels to ensure the success of this revolutionary project:
1. Vanguard Level – Leading the Struggle
At the vanguard, CPM-K has solidified its position as the general staff of the revolution, directing the ideological and political struggle with scientific clarity and revolutionary discipline. The Party has mobilised its cadre across the country to conduct rigorous social investigations, identify class contradictions, and organise the working masses. This strategic leadership has already borne results, as demonstrated by the growing political consciousness among workers, peasants, and the youth. The Gen Z Uprising, inspired and supported by the Party, has catalysed a new wave of anti-imperialist sentiment and action across the nation.
2. Alliance Level – Consolidating Anti-Imperialist and Anti-Capitalist Forces
CPM-K has been instrumental in forging alliances with like-minded progressive organisations and movements. These alliances are bringing together anti-imperialist and anti-capitalist forces to create a united front against the neocolonial state and its comprador agents. Through consistent political education and dialogue, the Party has strengthened these partnerships, ensuring a unified ideological framework. Concrete outcomes of this work include collaborative efforts to resist exploitative economic policies, reclaim stolen resources, and demand justice for oppressed communities. The alliances have also amplified the call for a people-centred economic system, led by state-run enterprises, cooperatives, and the collective ownership of key sectors.
3. Coalition Level – Mobilising Democratic Forces
At the coalition level, CPM-K leads the National Coordination Committee of People’s Assembly (NCCPA), a broad-based coalition of democratic forces dedicated to reclaiming Kenya’s sovereignty. The NCCPA is consolidating gains from the Gen Z uprising and transforming these into tangible political instruments. This coalition has already achieved significant milestones, such as organising mass actions, holding the neocolonial regime accountable for its failures, and laying the groundwork for a popular democratic government. Under the Party’s guidance, the coalition has revitalised the spirit of unity and resistance, ensuring that Kenya’s independence struggle continues in earnest.
Achieving the NDR’s Objectives
Through our work at these three levels, CPM-K is advancing the NDR as a transitional stage towards socialism, paving the way for the complete liberation of the Kenyan people. The Party’s leadership has proven that with disciplined organisation, ideological clarity, and political action, the forces of change can unite to overcome imperialism and capitalism.
The rallying call remains clear: Kenya shall never again be humiliated by foreign imperialist powers. The Party is determined to see the NDR through to its logical conclusion—a sovereign, socialist Kenya that guarantees dignity, equity, and progress for all its people.
The National Coordination Committee of the People’s Assembly (NCCPA) serves as the coalition’s backbone, consolidating the gains of the Gen Z uprising and mobilising democratic forces to end imperialist domination. Under the rallying call Kenya shall never be humiliated again by foreign imperialist powers, CPM-K remains committed to finishing the revolution and holding imperialist collaborators accountable.
Prepared by Mwaivu Kaluka,
National Chairperson, Communist Party Marxist Kenya